Rischard Review Questions

The second force, new world economy, raises emergence because businesses are now crossing borders and becoming more mobile†¦ Mom of them global. With resources moving around much more, the infrastructure needs to be updated to accommodate theses leaps. Additionally, policies and laws need to be overhauled to ensure that these organizations are playing fairly, paying the appropriate taxes, etc. 2. Why is the new world economy so radically deferent from the old world economy? The new world economy is an environment where Information and resources can Instantly span the globe with the touch of a button.The old world economy, by contrast, was a much slower place to conduct business. These days, much more work an be accomplished in the same amount of time. With computers to assist with calculations, data storage, sharing and transfer, as well as advancements in transportation, Including cars to get people to their destinations faster, trucks, planes and ships to transport goods, the new world economy moves at a much faster pace than was possible before. 3. What does Railcars mean by a crisis of complexity?Is our traditional reliance on reductionism science adequate for dealing with complexity? Explain. We have more data than before but less ways to use it. We wind up with less causal data allowing or cause and effect. As the world population grows and the new world economy adds more and more layers by way of technology advancements and globalization, the need for additional economic, social, political and environmental resources and regulations becomes more essential. 4. Describe the two big forces gap and why they are problematic.As the population grows and technology and economy evolves, we are more and more in need of solutions to the problems that we already have. The new world economy and populations keep advancing at alarming rates but the solutions to our robbers are moving along at a snail's pace. The gap between these two forces keeps widening more and more and without participation on a global scale, the problems will continue to get worse and worse. 5. What are the three new realities Influencing human Institutions? Tell how they are Influential.Hierarchy to Networks – In a hierarchy, there Is one individual making decisions. Information must be passed down through a chain of individuals, who all 1 OFF person on top is not the subject matter expert. Networks use a more flat method, where individuals or units can make decisions at lower levels, saving time and sources. The Struggling Nation State – The nation state is a structure where the political, environmental and economic systems are contained within a border. Nowadays, with globalization and migration, these lines are getting more and more blurred.Our economies are linked together and dependent upon one another, one country is taking all of the water and polluting what is left in another country and political structures are being redefined. What was once cont ained and very structured is now falling apart. A new kind of partnership – Where there was once a extinct separation between civil society, the private sector and the public sector, they are becoming more and more intertwined. Civil society has become more and more powerful with the advancement of technology and the ability to communicate instantly to other members and groups around the world.Often, group civil society have done extensive amounts of research and are subject matter experts, which are needed to solve some of these global issues. Many of these global issues cannot be solved without the cooperation of businesses and their incredible resources and massive global reach. Their innovation will be vital to getting some of these issues under control. Often times it is the interest of these companies, which moves us forward, not the interests of governments. 6. Which five of the twenty global issues Richard identifies do you think are most important? Explain your think ing.Page Education – Many underdeveloped countries are Just stuck in a rut, because they cannot get the simplest education, how washing your hand prevents the spread of bacteria or how to reduce the spread of HIVE. Simple methods could be taught on how to distribute water so that they can grow more food. Water Shortages – With arbitration becoming more popular, the need for fresh water becomes more and more off problem. Many areas are using the existing water supplies at unsustainable levels and when the water dries up, they will have a very serious problem on their hands.Commerce – The current laws were not written with commerce in mind. It did not exist then. With commerce growing at incredible rates and being conducted internationally, the laws must be rewritten to keep up with the times. Taxation – Along the same lines of commerce, as we become more global, equines is being conducted more and more across borders. Many companies and organizations are g etting away with not paying what is due. The tax code needs and overhaul with this problem considered.Intellectual Property Rights – The idea behind intellectual property rights is that if you innovate, you have the rights to that innovation and are protected from someone taking them from you. This encourages individuals and organizations to spend resources to come up with new ideas without fear of spending that investment for nothing because it was stolen. That is how things are here in the United States. Unfortunately, other countries do not recognize our intellectual property rights laws and steal other ideas which they spent resources to develop which then discourages concerns that require a global commitment or coalition to solve them?Many of these issues are too large for any one country to tackle and many of them are spilling over across borders. Many countries do not have the resources to get themselves out of the hole they are in and continue to deteriorate. Water ta ken in a country upstream deprives the country downstream of water. Pollution runs downstream and blows across borders. There are many methods which have helped developed countries get to where they are which can easily be shared to help underdeveloped countries get on their feet.Many of these problems must be dealt with from collaboration of many countries, developed and underdeveloped. 8. What are the shared characteristics that span global issues? They are planetary. Without a solution many of these issues will have drastic effects on our common future. They are urgent. The longer we wait, the more damage we do. In some cases, every year that goes by without finding solutions puts us seven years back. They are to expensive to solve in the overall scheme of things. Many of the world's problems could be solved with a small commitment of the overall GAP.They are tough. Someone has to give something up for others to gain and the interest of one's self almost always comes before the i nterests of others. None of these issues has been remedied by the current international setup. 9. Compare what Richard calls hierarchical world government with networked governance? Peggy Hierarchal Government is stacked and all decisions must go through one â€Å"leader†. Networked government is flat and each issue has â€Å"its own robber solving vehicle†, making it much more efficient. 10.What solutions other than global issues networks did Richard identify? Peggy One idea is using a 620 track. This would gather global leaders for each issue, Just as the current 620 gathers for financial issues. Another idea is a new diplomacy track and expanded concept of aid, which would assign expert diplomats who would deal directly with their foreign counterparts. This idea would also assign two budgets – one for country and one for global issues. It would also set up a global participation fund which would help developing countries participate in the global issues.

Free Speech on College Campuses

College is a time when most individuals are experiencing major changes and begin to explore new perspectives. The transition in becoming more independent, creating new insights and peer influence are key factors in changing the perspective of an individual. Students are faced with new ideas from their professors, family and fellow peers. Through that acquired knowledge many students decide that they either agree or disagree with the perspectives that they are taught. Allowing the right of ‘Free Speech’ on public college campuses has become an important issue that many public colleges are starting to address. In college students are capable of informing their peers about issues that are important and controversial. It is important that students are able to maintain this right so they can and inform the student body to promote positive change. Free speech should be allowed on public college campuses because it liberates students to actively engage in controversial issues. ‘Free Speech’ is necessary on college campuses because it allows students to determine their own beliefs and promote positive change. Free speech’ can be interpreted as, â€Å"The ability for students to explore controversial topics and express popular opinions without fear or reprisal† (Schmidt 1). College is an important transition in life because it is an age where students are forced to make their own independent decisions. Students are leaving home for the first time and explore new ideas and establishing their own opinion on current issues that surround them. ‘Free Speech’ is essential because it provides awareness to college campuses and it a proactive way of educating students outside of the classroom. A perfect example of this took place on the campus of University of Oregon, it was a debate whether or not the Pacifica Forum should be allowed to hold meetings in University of Oregon’s classrooms on campus. Although this was not a popular group, the majority of people on campus believed that the Pacifica forum should not be allowed. Despite their opinions, free speech was a great way in this situation for students to rally together and publically inform the rest of campus of their beliefs. In he school newspaper, The Daily Emerald, CJ Ciaramelle wrote â€Å"About 300 students from across the campus community — student unions, Greek Life, the ASUO, the Survival Center, the Women’s Center — showed up at the meeting to protest the Forum† (1). Although the majority of people protested against the forum the right to free speech, it is important because it allows students to make decisions on their own and invite students to do the same. â€Å"Free speech† often has negative connotations because the negative outcomes are publicized more than the positive outcomes. Free Speech’ is a time for individuals to express their beliefs and topic on an important issue. People chose to present themselves in a vast majority of ways such as, holding signs, making t-shirts, shouting, etc. People who chose to present themselves in disrupting ways such as, foul language, inappropriate attire are more likely to be noticed than another student that is holding a simple and respectful sign. Schmidt states, â€Å"Universities cannot censor or suppress speech, no matter how obnoxious in content, without violating their justification of existence† (2). There is no definition of what type of ‘free speech’ should be censored and not allowed. With that said, there should not be a limit on ‘free speech’ because people should be allowed to express themselves despite other peoples thoughts on what is ‘acceptable’. The opposing view would state that ‘free speech’ should not be allowed on college campus because it provides an unsafe learning environment. This is a valid point but limiting students to voice their own opinions on campus forces the opinions of professors onto students. In the article, â€Å"The University and Freedom† written by Benno Schmit, he states, â€Å"The assumption seems to be that the purpose of education is to induce â€Å"correct† opinion rather than to search for wisdom and to liberate the mind† (2). This is a good point suggesting that if students are not allowed to project their opinion, in a sense, it is just another way for Universities to teach by their own views and opinions. The opposition also states that many people are paying for an education so therefore they should have the right to feel safe walking through campus. This is also a valid point, but ‘free speech’ is an opportunity for people to express themselves. If at any point a person expresses himself or herself in a fashion that is unacceptable it then becomes another issue such as harassment, trespassing, indecent exposure, etc. The issue would then be addressed as an independent and different case rather than an act of ‘free speech’. Many ‘free speech’ cases can be very sensitive, but that certainly does not mean that they should not be addressed. It is important that people are not limited to expressing their voice publically because people need to see multiple perspectives then just their own. ‘Free speech’ also provides an opportunity for students to gather together and promote positive change. Allowing a person to publically speak their minds often is seen to be disruptive. Many people do not think about the positive outcomes that ‘Free Speech’ provides. Allowing students to express their opinions often is for the better and creates positive change. It is a proactive way for students to become educated and inform their peers about issues that are happening on campus. This relates to the Pacifica Forum controversy because students were able to express their views using their right of ‘free speech’. A few students were able to educate a majority of students about the Pacifica Forum and were able to force them off of campus. The ASUO president, Emma Kallaway, stated in the Daily Emerald â€Å"This may seem like a small victory in the larger fight, but it’s still a tremendous testament to student power that we were able to force this group out of our student union† (1). This is an example of ‘Free Speech’ providing a positive outcome when students can rally together and use their rights to achieve what they set their minds to do. When students become passionate about a certain issue, many of them use freedom of speech as a productive way to inform their peers in hopes to gain positive change for the community. It is important that people understand that ‘Free Speech’ is an opportunity for students to project their voices to inform and invite more students to do the same. ‘Free Speech† is essential when educating and providing students with knowledge that can be sensitive and controversial. Students should not be limited on what they chose to express. It is important to consider that just because a issue is sensitive and controversial does not mean it should not be discussed. ‘Free speech’ allows students the right to engage and determine their own perspectives when faced with controversial issues in the ‘real life’. ‘Free Speech’ is also extremely important because it is a productive way of informing students to rally together to make a positive change that will contribute to better mankind.

Liberty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Liberty - Essay Example So, doubtlessly, the concepts of positive liberty and negative liberty are inexorably linked; yet it is difficult to truly contend that positive liberty is a comprehensive critique of negative liberty, or, more pointedly, that they are incompatible at all. Broadly, positive liberty and negative liberty are simply different sides of the same coin. Liberty - as a pure concept or an ideal - can come in many forms or varieties. And even if we choose to only accept the notion of individualistic freedom as the foundation of our political philosophies, we still must admit that defining it in terms of either all that an individual is capable of or all that an individual is permitted to do comprise merely opposite ends of a wide range of controls upon an individual's ability to act freely. In the real world, for example, we find a hybrid of these two extreme views - and this is true regardless of which nation or society in which a person lives. A person in the United Kingdom who lives in poverty, for example, has his freedoms limited by laws, by the extension of other people's freedoms, and by his own internal inclinations. He may be prevented from killing his neighbor's barking dog simply because it is illegal to do so; meanwhile, he may be prevented from traveling to New York City simply because the distribution of wealth is such that others can do this while he cannot; and, at the same time, he may be prevented from reading Kant because he is unable to read. Ultimately, the reason why the concept of positive liberty is not a comprehensive critique of negative liberty is that while one is concerned with the limitations on individual freedom imposed by an abstract governing force, the other subject to the limitations on individual freedom imposed an individual's mental circumstances, which are often external as well. This makes it troublesome to argue that the two theories are fundamentally incompatible; they may be virtua lly impossible to reconcile in a coherent political theory, but they actually exist, in practice, on a daily basis in the real world. In other words, to say that positive liberty does not exist is to deny the innate inequalities and limitations of human beings - which will be assumed to exist in this paper - but on the other hand, to deny the existence of negative liberty is to deny the existence of social or political controls. So while it may be impossible to ground a political philosophy in some combination of these ideas - the importance of which Berlin convincingly points out - it is certainly possible that both ideas can be used as lenses through which to perceive the actual functioning of any society that exists or could ever be expected to exist. Berlin describes positive freedom in the following manner: "The 'positive' sense of the word 'liberty' derives from the wish on the part of the individual to be his own master. I wish my life and decisions to depend on myself, not on external forces of whatever kind."1 This way of characterizing

IKEA Product Line Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IKEA Product Line Development - Essay Example However, the prices are lower compared to those of competitors in the market. IKEA targets young consumers who do not have time to purchase furniture during the usual business hours. Additionally, IKEA recognizes that many of the young people lack the experience of choosing stylish furniture. For this reason, IKEA considers the needs of such consumers. It offers a wide variety of sofas and armchairs of reasonable quality and remarkable designs at low prices (Burt, Johansson, and Thelander 187). Since many of the young consumers do not have experience on how to arrange different rooms in their houses, IKEA ensures that it provides them with a demonstration on how to arrange different furniture in every room of the house. IKEA customers have the opportunity of viewing different furniture combinations so that they can make informed choices of the furniture they want to buy. IKEA carries out a rigorous commercialization strategy. IKEA creates brand awareness through TV advertising, newspaper, and magazine advertising as well as sponsorships. Additionally, IKEA has recognized the opportunity presented by online advertising forums and takes advantage of them. The company has an extensive distribution channel whose primary purpose is to ensure that customers can get their home furnishings at cheaper prices. Over 1,600 suppliers manufacture IKEA sofas and armchairs. The ready products are then transported to hundreds of stores in different parts of the globe.

Probability for Managers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Probability for Managers - Essay Example The growing uncertainties under which managers must function, is a feature of the conventional environment (Daum, 2004). The aspect of uncertainty is exacerbated by information overload. Studies confirm that the information available to managers exceeds human capacity to process and to use such information. This makes for very difficult operating systems for managers. A third aspect of management practice is that most processes involve groups and teams. Even where final authority rests with an individual, the varying capabilities of managers to focus and to absorb information, requires that a common platform is created, so that each participant can express his or her views. Dissent is often the result of opposing parties basing their opinions on different scenarios, which they think is probable. Scientific application of probability theories has therefore a watershed role in building common understanding, if not consensus in teams that run firms. Formal probability techniques have been used in research functions of firms for a long time. Market Research, Clinical Trials and all other experiments to study the safety and efficacy performances of new products, use probability methodology. Random number generation and use, sampling, determination of significance and confidence levels all depend on probability science. Managers who are not formally trained in mathematics, or who do not remember their academics, may use outputs stated in qualitative terms for their decisions. This can lead to critical matters being effectively delegated to specialists who understand mathematics. Many examples of such distortion can be found in the high-profile pharmaceutical industry. Products have been released for the market, though research showed the probabilities of side-effects and adverse events. Managers in the concerned firms, regulators and doctors have all been victims of their ignorance of probability science, in taking decisions that were to subsequently cost consumers dearly! This trend will continue as technology takes us in to fields with multiple outcomes. It highlights the need for modern managements to fully understand the conclusions of formal probability methods. Insurance is another traditional field for the use of probability (Matthew & Stewart, 1999, p 2). The industry that provides cover against premiums depends on probability theories in large measure for their sustained probability, as indeed do all bookmakers involved in structured and informal gambling operations of all kinds. Firms with large capital assets often invest in internal positions, using specialists to determine their insurance policies and practices. Product liability is often determined in companies by people without adequate grounding in the mathematics of probability: under provision for related claims is often the result. All products and services that have potential implications for human safety and in terms of environmental impacts need the systematic and continuous application of established and proven probability techniques, for appropriate decision making. Stock valuation and its future course have emerged as industries in their own rights with the development of bourses world wide and the spread of the financial services and merchant banking sectors. Mutual funds also depend almost entirely on future estimates of market capitalization. Forecasts of scrip values started with simple regression and

Lack of communication on relationships Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Lack of communication on relationships - Essay Example However, this practice leads me to exhaustion and I slowly started to dislike the place. It could have been over easily, however, lack of communication on my behalf led me to a point where I considered quitting that job. Also, once while working there, I started noticing that my manager had started being a bit rude and strict to me. And although, he didn’t use to say much, it led to start of a rumor that I was going to be fired. That not only made me uneasy emotionally, but also affected my motivation at work. However, sometime later it became clear that his behavior was due to his personal problem and not due to my work. Lack of communication often leads to a conflict or in other cases worsening of a conflicting situation (Conflict Research Consortium). It is important to communicate in order to prevent conflict and maintain a clean and clear environment all

Virus paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Virus paper - Essay Example The smallest are barely larger than ribosomes or other internal structures found inside normal cells; the largest (e.g., variola) are almost the size of small bacteria. Some viruses can be detected under a sophisticated light microscope, but for most only an electron microscope will serve. For generations, therefore, even the best scientists were essentially guessing about the structure, nature, and functioning of viruses, entities they could observe only indirectly (Bookchin and Schumacher 68). The first actual sighting of a variola virus-the first virus of any sort so visualized-came in 1947, under an electron microscope. The smallpox virus capsid is often described as ellipsoid or brick shaped. Many viruses, including variola, are often enveloped, with the capsid housed inside an outer membrane made of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, which provides, in the case of variola, an overall spherical appearance (Imperato 390). The infection process begins when a virus approaches a t arget cell; forcible entry into the cell may then be accomplished in several different ways. Some antibacterial viruses mechanically drill a hole in the cell's outer structure and inject the viral DNA through it, much like the operation of a hypodermic syringe, with the now empty capsid remaining outside. Viruses that afflict plants often enter passively through a microtear in the cell wall (Imperato 390). The defenses that the human body-and modern medicine-erect against many other types of infections are often less effective against viruses. But viruses pose exceptional challenges to the immune system. Some of these aggressors undergo very frequent mutation, altering the external configuration of those glycoproteins, and thereby fooling or evading the antibodies (Strohman 169). Dear Granny the main problem is that scientists have not yet come to conclusion concerning a question whether viruses are alive or dead. On the one hand, a virus is nature's ultimate parasite: it is incapable, by itself, of undertaking the usual array of biological functions. It cannot produce or consume energy, move, grow, or reproduce without first invading a living cell and usurping the host's internal mechanisms. For this reason, many scientists do not consider variola or any other virus to be truly alive, even in the sense that other simple microorganisms, from bacteria to rickettsia (another family of infectious microorganisms) are considered so (Strohman 169). Other authorities would, perhaps more generously, consider viruses to be minimal "living organisms". At the same time, there is surely something about a virus that makes it different from a conglomeration of inert chemicals. It has at least a kind of life potential, a dormant biological presence, that is undeniable. The recent discovery of categories of even smaller, and even less lifelike, infective entities has further obscured the question of deriving a meaningful definition of life (Strohman 169). Prions, proteinlike particles devoid of any nucleic acid, have been implicated in a variety of degenerative brain diseases, such as scrapie in sheep, mad cow disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, although their precise operational mechanisms are still unknown. Viroids are a cluster of similar plant-invading creatures, containing a snippet of RNAbut none of the other

Essay I 3610 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

I 3610 - Essay Example As much as they are not physically with us, their memories are still fresh in our minds. This can be traced back in the sixteenth century. The oral story telling had main objectives of connecting to the roots of our ancestors and has moral teachings. Gradually the evolution of having stories and poetry work edited for future use came into place. The secret behind story telling was to pass this wisdom from one generation to another. The story telling also revolved the core business of the society that include skills like leather works, blacksmith and the farming activities just to mention a few, (Faroqhi, p 204). Many of the stories that were passed to the next generation had a common pattern of religion, empires and their migration history and having been confined by geographical zones. The death of the rich travelers that resisted the rule of the Ottoman was told to emphasize on loyalty of the Turks, stressing the importance of loyal citizenship. The worrier’s at that time can be compared with the current army of today and their key roles to defend the boundaries against the enemy, (Faroqhi, p 206). The many gifts and rewards that the worriers got when they returned back from war. In today’s world they are rewarded in terms of monetary value. At the Ottoman era, the story telling was done also on occasions that had great value at that particular time. Another great moment was the breaking news of the birth of a new prince within the empire, circumcision season, the court marriages and not forgetting the ascension day of the new ruler. This was the high time the story teller would portray skills on words chanted. The entertainment was highly valued and the deliberate effort to preserve that culture is evident on our valued historical museums, (Faroqhi, p 220). This paper acknowledges the great efforts that our great grandfathers did during their time. The great teachings from our history and this help us refresh our roots. Governments and other stake

Finish the part of "Market Structure and Competitive Analysis in Essay

Finish the part of "Market Structure and Competitive Analysis in Nigeria" (2 pages, need references) - Essay Example e market size for solar energy in Nigeria has been hampered by the high percentage of the Nigerian population who lack access to the nation’s power grid. In recent years, the figure has been placed at close to 55 %, which has greatly limited the growth of the solar energy industry in Nigeria. However, the 2010 governmental reforms on the country’s power sector have improved the use of solar power energy in a bid to increase the standard of living of millions of Nigerians. Mind you, the country is estimated to have a population of close to 175 million people. The biggest competitors of Amazing Solar Inc.’s product include BP Solar, Evergreen Solar, AEE Solar and General Electric. However, the low cost of operation associated with our company gives the product an added advantage making it affordable in the Nigerian market. In addition, once the installation and purchase costs have been covered, the consumer does not incur any additional costs, making the product easy to maintain. This means that advertising costs from the promotion of the product will not greatly affect the price of the product. Due to this fact, the product can be advertised via television commercials, email information cards, newspapers, magazines and through seminars conducted in major towns like Abuja and Lagos. Despite the numerous benefits that the company stands to accrue, there are few disadvantages that Amazing Solar Inc. and its product are bound to face in its penetration of the Nigerian solar energy market, chief of which pertains to the rampant corruption in Nigeria and the uncertainties that accompany penetrating new markets. In addition, the company faces stiff competition from local based companies that have a better understanding of the demographics involved, market structure, culture of the Nigerian people and the general political and socio-economic factors in the country. Another big disadvantage includes the fact that the country is ravaged by the Boko Haram menace, which

Susan Wolf - Asymmetrical Freedom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Susan Wolf - Asymmetrical Freedom - Essay Example The essay "Susan Wolf - Asymmetrical Freedom" discusses Asymmetrical freedom of Wolf. According to Wolf, an agent’s actions are psychologically determined only on condition that his actions are determined by personal interests. By this, he means that his desires or values, and own interests are wholly determined by his environment or heredity. If people’s actions are determined, there is a high probability of the idea of psychological determinism being true. Considering what not being determined by his interests would mean for the actions of an agent, or for an agent to be capable of acting despite his interests, Wolf argues that the agent can act against everything that he cares about and what he believes in. For instance, if a son of an agent was in a burning building, yet the agent is standing and watching the building consumed by fire, then a person could think that such behavior ought not to be regarded as an action, but as spasms that are beyond the control of the agent. If it is an action, then they are so bizarre that an agent who did not bother to help may have been insane to have the ability to perform it. Wolf’s views suggest that if people require an agent to be psychologically undetermined, they cannot expect him to be an agent of good morals. This is on grounds that if people expect that his interests do not determine his actions, then probably they cannot be determined by his ethical or moral interests. However, if people expect that his interests should not be determined by something else.... We believe that his actions are determined by the precise kinds of interests and that the right sort of reasons determines their interests. On the other hand, an agent who is not determined psychologically has no ability to carry out actions that are right. If his actions can never be suitably correct, then in doing right actions, he can never go wrong. One problem emerges from this situation, and that is that the undetermined agent seems to be free from moral reasons. Consequently, the satisfaction of the state of freedom tends to overpower the satisfaction of the state of value. Philosophers have got intuitions wrong, since there is an asymmetry in people’s intuitions concerning freedom that has been for a long time been overlooked. Consequently, it seems that the answer to the issue of free will can only be found in two options: either the verity that the action of an agent was determined will always be compatible with him being responsible for the action or the fact that t he action of the agent was determined will often rule his responsibility out. Wolf suggests that the solution lies in the idea that both the incompatibilities and compatibilities are wrong. To be responsible beings, we need suitable combination of indetermination and determination. Susan Wolf’s views on the issue that being psychologically compelled or determined by good is compatible with the compelled agent being responsible for his action is plausible. This is due to the reason that an agent cannot be blameworthy in his morals if he is determined in the way he acts. In my view, determination is compatible with the responsibility of an agent to perform a good

The Legality Of Euthanasia In Today’s Society Essay Example for Free

The Legality Of Euthanasia In Today’s Society Essay Introduction This work focuses on the legality of euthanasia in today’s society. In the sequel various case laws have been discussed. In several countries terminally ill patients are clamouring for euthanasia in order to put a stop to their torment. There is however a great difficulty involved in obtaining death. The doctors and the courts are not taking cognizance of patients’ requests for euthanasia, but are deciding on their own as to which patient should be killed and when such a patient should be killed. This death is generally by means of withdrawing life support systems. There have been several demands for legalizing voluntary euthanasia and physician assisted suicide. Such demands have occurred all over the world. However, the European Court of Justice decided in the year 2002, that no EU Citizen had the right to die. Similarly, the US Supreme Court opined that no US Citizen had the right to die. This has resulted in individual countries having to deal with this problem on their own and a certain measure of acceptance is evident in the Netherlands, Japan, Oregon and Columbia. In general, two arguments are put forward in support of euthanasia and physician assisted suicide, namely, the mitigation of the intolerable pain and discomfort caused by terminal illness; and to enhance individual freedom. These two factors are taken into consideration by the government in order to legalize euthanasia, for example, in the Netherlands, where suffering has to be accompanied by a recurring request for mercy killing. Euthanasia is the process of bringing about an easy death. It refers to acts, which terminate or shorten life painlessly in order to end suffering where there is no prospect of a cure. There are only two choices available to patients with fatal illness, either a slow death involving unrelieved suffering or euthanasia. Terminally ill patients suffer from depression or a false sense of unimportance, which tends to affect their judgment. Their decision-making may also be influenced by confusion or dementia, which could be lessened with suitable treatment. It is very important to remember that, patients who on admission say let me die usually after effective relief from symptoms are most grateful that their request was not acceded to. Terminally ill patients are also adjustable to a high level of disability as they value what little quality of life they have left. The legal position in respect of selective non-treatment was dealt with by the House of Lords in Airedale NHS Trust v Bland[1], in which the applicant, a health authority sought an order to withdraw life-sustaining treatment and provide medical treatment that would enable a peaceful and dignified death with the minimum of pain. The family of the patient supported this application. The respondent, 21-year-old Anthony Bland, had been in a persistently vegetative state for more than three years and though not brain dead, he had no cognitive function. The unanimous judgment of all the doctors who examined him was that there was no hope of a cure. Under these circumstances, it was thought suitable to stop further treatment. The judge granted this order, which was confirmed by both the Court of Appeals and the House of Lords. The latter held that a doctor, who has to care for a patient who is unable to indicate his willingness to be treated, need not extend the patients life regardless of the quality thereof. In F v West Berkshire Health Authority[2] the Court held that medical treatment and artificial feeding, could be discontinued if the patients best interests were served. To determine what course of action would further the best interests of the patient, the court used the test laid down in Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee[3], which required the acquiescence of a large, informed and responsible group of medical practitioners. As the termination of life-supporting treatment in this case was in accordance with the criteria set out in a discussion paper by the British Medical Association[4], these â€Å"criteria [were] a) Rehabilitative efforts for at least 6 months after the injury; b) the diagnosis of irreversible PVS should only be considered confirmed after 12 months; c) the diagnosis should be confirmed by two other independent doctors; d) the wishes of the family should be respected[5].† The court found that there had been compliance with the Bolam requirement. In this case Lord Mustill highlighted the need for legislation relating to euthanasia stating that, â€Å"The whole matter cries out for exploration in depth by Parliament and then for the establishment by legislation not only of a new set of ethically and intellectually consistent rules, distinct from the general criminal law, but also of a sound procedural framework within which the rules can be applied to individual cases[6].† In R (Pretty) v. Director of Public Prosecutions[7], Lord Steyn restated that change of the law on assisted suicide should be carried out by the legislature rather than by judges.  Ã‚   Case law demonstrates the paradox that results from the current law.   As Dame Butler-Sloss P. emphasised in B v An NHS Hospital Trust[8], a competent patient may refuse any form of medical treatment, even life-prolonging medical treatment, for whatever reason.   B was able to insist that the ventilator, which kept her alive, was to be disconnected. Nevertheless, Diane Pretty who was able to make a competent and autonomous choice about the timing and manner of her death, was unable to apply this decision due to a ban on assisted suicide and consequently died in a way that she had tried to avoid. Moreover, Bland, was unable to make any choice, therefore his existence was held to justify the withdrawal of artificial feeding resulting in his death. In Re J (a minor)[9] J, an infant had serious brain damage and large areas of his brain were filled with fluid instead of tissue. This resulted in convulsions and stoppage of breathing. He had been placed on a ventilator twice and it was certain that he would develop spastic quadriplegia. Speech would be denied to him for ever and his life span was considered to be very short. In respect of his being linked to a ventilator in the future, two medical practitioners certified that it would not be in Js interest to be ventilated again. Accordingly, the court issued an order in agreement with these medical experts. An argument was raised against this court order, but the Court of Appeal rejected it and observed that the court could not issue a life-ending order unless it was absolutely certain that the quality of the childs subsequent life would be intolerable to the child and demonstrably so awful that in effect the child must be condemned to die. Both AVE or active voluntary euthanasia and PAS or physician assisted suicide do take place. The Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill[10], which permits doctors to resort to AVE under strictly limited circumstances, was recently introduced in the House of Lords. The extant Case law confirms that the best interest model of decision-making is concerned not only with the physical well-being of the patient, but also the psychological, moral, ethical and social interests. By implication, the non – transparent nature of the best interests test implies that it is vulnerable to exploitation. First, there is a danger that the values of the decision-maker may prevail over those of the patient leading to paternalistic decisions.   Second, references to the wider interests of the patient could bring about a masked development of third party interests. Moreover, this approach opposes the spirit of the Mental Capacity Act 2005[11], which emphasizes the promotion of self-determination for adults who lack capacity. It permits anticipatory treatment decisions to be made before the patient becomes incapacitated and it allows proxy decision-makers to decide on behalf of incapacitated patients. Causing a patients death by means of a lethal injection differs from causing the death of a patient by refusing to provide treatment. The same line of pro-euthanasia argument is also constructed through a confusion of means and ends. This argument states that when death is the inevitable outcome, the means used to achieve such death, whether by withdrawing life support systems or by administering a lethal injection, are morally irrelevant and should therefore be legally irrelevant[12]. This argument is unacceptable and the means that bring abut a person’s death should necessarily matter not only morally but also legally. It is essential to understand that the issue is not one of dying but rather of how a person dies. The moral intuition of any person states that there are essential differences between letting nature take its course, which also includes the withdrawal of life-support systems and treatment, and the outright killing of a dying person. Advocates of euthanasia contend that that the manner in which a person dies should be a private matter, whereas those who are opposed to legalizing euthanasia state that such arguments are fallacious. These opponents of euthanasia strongly subscribe to the view that every persons death necessarily involves others, including healthcare professionals and that it also includes values of society and symbols. Furthermore, wherever euthanasia takes place, the manner in which death occurs will not be restricted to the patient’s self-determination and personal beliefs because of the fact that euthanasia is an act that requires two people to make it possible and a complicit society to make it acceptable[13]. The very concept of legalization of physician assisted death has been subjected to a great deal of debate with regard to its benefits and disadvantages. These debates had been totally based on theory and hypothesis. In this context in the year 1977, the Supreme Court of the USA addressed this subject and stated that â€Å"perhaps we should wait [on the question of legalization] until we know more.† [14] In the written evidence submitted by Professor Margaret, she stated that at present there was five years of empirical knowledge in respect of the effects that the legalization of euthanasia had produced in the state of Oregon. Furthermore, there was available an even more detailed amount of empirical data from the Netherlands covering a sixteen year period in respect of euthanasia. She contended that these data sets clearly support the claim that the legal process can be controlled effectively, with the result that abuse of euthanasia does not occur and if at all it does take place, such instances are very infrequent. In the state of Oregon no incident of substantive abuse of euthanasia had been reported and the incidents reported in the Netherlands are practically none. The Legislation in respect of euthanasia is closely related to essential and crucial enhancements in palliative and hospice care[15]. The act of committing suicide has been considered to be possible only for a person endowed with a considerable amount of courage, but the relevant scientific literature considers such an act to be the act of a mentally imbalanced person. Moreover, it considers suicide to be an act of self destruction by a person who lacks lucid thinking and who is a lunatic. Similarly patients who request physician assisted death are usually those who have been suffering from either severe depression or psychological imbalances[16]. The Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill was introduced in order to legalize, in respect of people who are terminally ill, who are mentally capable and whose suffering is unbearable, medically assisted death or, in instances where the patients are physically incapable of carrying out the concluding deed that would end their life, voluntary euthanasia in order to end their life. A scrutiny was made of the principle on which the Bill was to be based as well as the practical outcome of the bill if it were to become law. Subsequently the experiences of countries that had formulated legislation to permit euthanasia were examined in depth and then an analysis was performed in respect of public opinion in the United Kingdom with regard to euthanasia. The principle of personal autonomy constitutes the basis for this Bill. The supporters of this bill strongly contend that people who are terminally ill should be given the right, conditioned by appropriate safeguards, to obtain medical assistance in order to die in the same manner that patients, whether terminally ill or otherwise, are permitted by right to decline life-prolonging treatment. However, opponents of this bill are of the opinion that these two situations cannot be compared and that ensuring safeguards would not be feasible and that intentional killing, regardless of the reason, should not be permitted. These opponents strongly resist any change to the law in this context[17]. Further, their Lordships held that at the practical level there were opposing views regarding the possible effects of the Bill in providing help to some people or in causing harm to others. In this matter the General Medical Council communicated to their Lordships that â€Å"a change in the law to allow physician-assisted dying would have profound implications for the role and responsibilities of doctors and their relationships with patients†[18]. This bill grants immunity to medical staff members, who comply with its terms, from prosecution for breach of professional oath or affirmation. Moreover this bill makes it possible for the terminally-ill patients to obtain such pain-relief as they require in order to alleviate the symptoms of their illness[19].   Unfortunately, this bill was defeated in the House of Lords[20]. Several examples can be cited of persons who have pleaded for euthanasia to be permitted in respect of their near and dear ones. One such instance is that of Bill Starr, whose wife Maureen – Anne was suffering from Kirkby Alzheimer’s disease.   Bill wanted his wife to be put out of her misery by resorting to euthanasia. This was due to the fact that his wife Maureen-Anne had drastically worsened in her health, which was a cause of anguish for both of them. Bill wanted his wife to die with dignity. He also stated that â€Å"If this was an animal you would be able to put it out of its misery and the same should apply to humans. Her brain is shrinking and it is just downhill all the way from now. There needs to be a change in the law to allow euthanasia to go ahead for all those who need it[21]. Madeleine Zeffa Biver’s son asked the court to prosecute those who had helped her to commit suicide in Spain. Madeleine had written to the El Pais newspaper in which she expressed her desire to die with dignity. She stated that â€Å"Please give me a glass of water, wine or whiskey†¦I want to die with my head held high†¦This is not a crime. It is not a murder.† Despite assisting suicide being a crime in Spain, The Right to a Dignified Death group asked some of its members to be present while she died and contended that â€Å"there was nothing criminal about offering moral support to someone who wished to kill themselves[22].† Eighty percent of the people in the United Kingdom are of the opinion that the law should respect the wishes of terminally ill patients in pain and permit a doctor to end their life. In the UK it has been observed that under certain circumstances, euthanasia is acceptable to the public. This has been the finding of the British Social Attitudes Survey. Research conducted for the survey indicates that backing for voluntary euthanasia depends strongly on whether someone is terminally ill, on levels of suffering and on how death occurs. There is much greater support for a doctor being permitted to end someones life rather than a relative doing so, or for suicide assisted by a doctor. However, public support for euthanasia is lacking or is negligible in cases where an individual does not face death as a result of their condition. This survey was conducted after the previous year’s attempt to change the law failed. The conclusion reached by the Survey was that The disjuncture between the current law on assisted dying and majority public opinion thus seems unlikely to simply disappear. Pressure to mount further attempts to change the law in some ways at least looks set to continue[23]. When a physician induces easy death to terminally ill patients by administering lethal drugs, then such a process is known as Euthanasia. Physician assisted suicide takes place when a doctor intentionally helps a person to commit suicide by providing such a patient with drugs for self-administration, at that person’s voluntary and competent request. This act puts an end to or shortens the life span of patients who suffer from incurable diseases. Patients with terminal illness can either undergo a slow and ghastly death with unbearably sufferings or they can die with dignity and without pain by resorting to euthanasia. It becomes a permissible option when comfort care ceases to be effective for the terminally or incurably ill[24]. The term comfort care refers to palliative and supportive treatment used in hospice programs and elsewhere. This comfort care has to be made the standard medical treatment for patients who have rejected therapeutic or life-sustaining treatment or who are suffering from a terminal illness. Comfort care relieves symptoms, improves the quality and meaning of the patient’s remaining life and eases the process of dying. Physician assisted death becomes a legitimate option only as a treatment of last resort and after customary procedures for comfort care have been found substandard by competent patients in the context of their own situation and values[25]. In the cases of Vacco v Quill and Washington v Glucksberg, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the constitution had not granted any right to physician-assisted suicide; its decision clearly approved the use of intensive palliative care and seemed to permit experimentation at the state level so that this â€Å"earnest and profound debate† could continue[26]. The injury suffered by actor Christopher Reeve[27] and his response to his condition has been the subject of numerous news stories. The public sees a man who previously enjoyed a physically active lifestyle, but who now relies on a respirator to breathe, and on other people to provide for his every physical need. Rick Hansen[28] and Teny Fox[29] are examples of people who have not only contributed to the society in significant ways, but who have also captured the imagination of the public in their courageous journeys to help others suffering from spinal cord injuries and cancer respectively. The actions of Dr. Jack Kevorkian[30], a doctor dedicated to aiding the terminally ill in their chase for death, repeatedly places this issue about the value of life before the public and the courts in the United States. Flach[31] defines mental health in terms of resilience. He proposes that when we experience disturbance in our lives, it is through resilience that we are able to move through our experiences in good mental health. He argues that it is how well we are able to integrate each new experience and circumstance into our lives that leads to successful adaptation throughout our lives. In her book, Resilient Adults: Overcoming a Cruel Past, Gina O’ Connell Higgins[32] examines the lives of forty individuals who have suffered cruelty and abuse in their childhood, but who have led purposeful, successful adult lives. O’ Connell Higgins identifies attachment to a parental surrogate as an important factor in the development of self-esteem in the subjects she studies. Research on resilience had shown that resilience is significant in the lives of many individuals suffering extreme trauma from abuse and other circumstances it will also contribute to the well being of an individual facing physical pain or disability. Certain other behaviors and attitudes also contribute to positive adjustment to chronic pain. Kelly and Clifford[33] studied the impact of narrative group therapy on subjects with the chronic pain of Fibromyalgia. They found that this therapy allowed the subjects â€Å"the opportunity to re-examine and restory [sic] their lives, to not get stuck in repeating the story of helplessness, and to harness their own resources† (p. 276). It is an established fact that people are able to assess the possible threat in the event of any crisis and they can balance their ability to cope with the crisis or event based on their analysis of the amount of threat involved[34]. At this juncture, a relationship between coping up with helplessness and increase in the degree of disability in chronic pain patients was found by Lenhart and Ashby[35]. Byrant[36] has propounded a four-factor model of perceived control that avoids negative events, tackles negative events, strives to achiever positive outcomes and values positive events. His theory is that not only the terrible illness or disability but also the patients’ perception of their ability to cope that has great importance. Other forms of interventions have been found helpful for people coping with diseases including cancer. Researchers reported that Interpersonal Therapy techniques focusing on interpersonal relationships, role transitions, and grief reactions were beneficial for such patients[37]. Julia Faucett[38] studied the effects of chronic pain on social supports, family relationships and incidences of depression. Her study showed that the negative response of family and friends to the patient’s pain significantly contributed to depression. Although euthanasia proponents argue that pain validates the right for Physician-assisted suicide, research suggests that the link between the desire for suicide and pain is much more complicated than a one to one correlation. This link between depression and suicidal ideation is commonly found in cancer patients[39]. It not chronic pain, in isolation, that leads to a desire for Physician Assisted Suicide. This process is determined by social, familial and personal issues and several studies have revealed that â€Å"the measurement tools intended to determine the symptoms for cancer patients, and their entire family, should be so developed as to help caregivers to attend to the needs of cancer patients and their families during the course of the illness[40].† Fife[41] found that the meaning individuals give to having cancer affected how they dealt with the disease in their lives. She found that the more social support patients perceived they have had from family, fiends, and medical professionals the more positive meanings the patients had regarding the impact of the illness on their lives. In Aronsons study of quality of life in persons with multiple sclerosis and their caregivers, she concludes that Determining those elements that have an impact upon an individuals quality of life may help inform decision-making in the planning of interventions, treatments, and services aimed at enhancing quality of life[42]. Conclusion Physician assisted death is a one time process and it should be made available to the patients suffering from terminal illnesses to reduce their suffering and permit them to exercise their rights to self-determination. Chances of indiscriminate usage of this device are high. To encounter this problem a proper and meticulously designed mechanism has to be implemented to avoid abuse of this provision. It is therefore essential to legalize physician-assisted death, but with sufficient protections to shield susceptible patients[43]. Societal opinion regarding the morality of suicide has been ambiguous since historical times. In the early Roman and Greek civilizations, suicide was of frequent occurrence. With the development of Christianity, suicide was deemed to be a sin. However, in other cultures, suicide was accorded the status of honourable death. Hara-kiri was a private ceremonial form of suicide resorted to by the Japanese in order to safeguard their honour. In the Netherlands, physician assisted suicide is permitted by law. In the Netherlands legislation was passed in 1993, which exempted physicians from prosecution if they had assisted in suicide, provided they had adhered to the procedures prescribed by the law[44]. Bibliography    Alter, C.L., Fleishman, S.B., Kornblith, A.B., Holland, J.C., Biano, D., Levenson, R., Vinciguerra, V., Rai, K.R. (1996). Supportive telephone intervention for patients receiving chemotherapy. Psychosomatics, 37, 425-431. Aronson, Kristan J. (1997). Quality of life among persons with multiple sclerosis and their caregivers. Neurology, 48, 74-80.    Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Act 2005. Parliamentary copyright House of Lords 2005. HL Bill 3654/1. Airedale NHS Trust v Bland. (1993) 1 ALL ER 821 (CA). Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee (1957) 2 ALL ER 118; (1957) 1 ELR 582. Burt RA. 1997, The Supreme Court speaks-not assisted suicide but a constitutional right to palliative care. N Engl J Med.; 337: 1234-6. B v An NHS Hospital Trust (2002) 2 All ER 449. Byrant, Fred B. (1989). A four-factor model of perceived control: avoiding, coping, obtaining, and savoring. Journal of Personality, 57, 773-797. Callahan D. When self-determination runs amok. Hastings Center Report 1992; 22(2): 52-55. Davey, G.C.L. (1993). A comparison of three cognitive appraisal strategies: the role of threat devaluation in problem-focused coping. Personality and Individual Differences. 14, 535-546. Faucett, Julia A. (1994). Depression in painful chronic disorders: the role of pain and conflict about pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 520-526. Fife, Betsy L. (1995). The measurement of meaning in illness. Social Science Medicine, 40, 1021-1028. Flach, Frederic. (1988) Resilience: Discovering a New Strength at Times of Stress. New York, New York, New York: Fawcett Columbine. F v West Berkshire Health Authority. (1989) 2 ALL ER 545; (1990) 2 AC 1. Hansen, Rick Taylor, Jim. (1987). Rick Hansen: Man in Motion. Vancouver: Douglas McIntyre. House of Lords: Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill [HL] Volume I: Report Ordered to be printed 3 March 2005 and published 4 April 2005 Published by the Authority of the House of Lords Husbands euthanasia plea. January 4, 2007. Ashfield Observer.  © 2007 Johnston Publishing Limited. Document ASHFOB0020070105e31400004. Retrieved from http://global.factiva.com/ha/default.aspx Kelly, Patricia and Clifford, Patrick. (1997). Coping with chronic pain: assessing narrative approaches. Social Work, 42, 266-277. Kiser, Jerry D. January 1996. Counselors and the Legalization of Physician – Assisted Suicide. Counseling and Values. v 40. n2 ISSN: 01607960. p. 127-31. Lenhart, R.S., and Ashby, J.S. (1996). Cognitive coping strategies and coping modes in relation to chronic pain disability. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation counseling. 27, 15-18. Massie, M.J., Gagnon, P., Holland, J. (1994). Depression and suicide in patients with cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 9, 325-340. Mental Capacity Act 2005, ISBN 0  10  540905  7. O’ Connell Higgins, Gina. (1994). Resilient Adults: Overcoming a Cruel Past. San Francisco Ca: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Pfeifer, J.E., Brigham, J.C. Robinson, T. (1996). Euthanasia on trial: examining public attitudes toward nonphysician-assisted death. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 119-129. Quill TE, 1993. Death and dignity. New York: W.W. Norton. R (Pretty) v. Director of Public Prosecutions (2002) UKHRR 97, (2002) 35 EHRR 1, (2002) 2 FLR 45. Re J (a minor) (1990) 3 ALL ER 930. Reeve, Christopher. (1998). Still Me. New York: Random House Publishing. Regulating Physician-Assisted Death, 1994, retrieved 25 January 2007 from https://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/331/2/119. Scrivener, Leslie. (1981). Terry Fox: His Story. Toronto: McClelland Stewart.    The Assisted Dying for Terminally Ill Bill 2005. The National Council for Palliative Care. Retrieved from http://www.ncpc.org.uk/ethics/assisted_dying.html Tremlett, Giles. Euthanasia row: The colourful life and controversial death of Jacques Brels muse: Judge investigates sons claim Madeleine was helped to kill herself. January 19, 2007. Madrid. The Guardian  © Copyright 2007. Vachon, Mary, Kristjanson, Linda, Higginson, Irene (1995). Psychosocial issues in palliative care: the patient, the family, and the process and outcome of care. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 10, 142-150. Ward, Lucy and Carvel, John. Euthanasia: Four out of five want to give doctors right to end life of terminally ill patients in pain. January 4, 2007. The Guardian  © Copyright 2007. Written Evidence, Memorandum by Professor Margaret Battin of Utah University, USA, House of Lords, Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, Volume III: Evidence – Individual Submissions. [1] Airedale NHS Trust v Bland. (1993) 1 ALL ER 821 (CA). [2] F v West Berkshire Health Authority. (1989) 2 ALL ER 545; (1990) 2 AC 1. [3]Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee (1957) 2 ALL ER 118; (1957) 1 ELR 582. [4] British Medical Association Treatment of Patients in persistent Vegitative State. [5] Ibid. [6]Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee (1957) 2 ALL ER 118; (1957) 1 ELR 582. [7]R (Pretty) v. Director of Public Prosecutions (2002) UKHRR 97, (2002) 35 EHRR 1, (2002) 2 FLR 45. [8] B v An NHS Hospital Trust (2002) 2 All ER 449. [9] Re J (a minor) (1990) 3 ALL ER 930. [10] Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Act 2005. Parliamentary copyright House of Lords 2005. HL Bill 36   Ã‚   54/1. [11] Mental Capacity Act 2005, ISBN 0  10  540905  7. [12] Callahan D. When self-determination runs amok. Hastings Center Report 1992; 22(2): 52-55. [13] Ibid. [14] Written Evidence, Memorandum by Professor Margaret Battin of Utah University, USA, House of Lords, Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, Volume III: Evidence – Individual Submissions. [15] Ibid. [16] Written Evidence, Memorandum by Professor Margaret Battin of Utah University, USA, House of Lords, Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, Volume III: Evidence – Individual Submissions. [17] House of Lords: Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill [HL] Volume I: Report Ordered to be printed 3 March 2005 and published 4 April 2005 Published by the Authority of the House of Lords London [18] House of Lords: Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill [HL] Volume I: Report Ordered to be printed 3 March 2005 and published 4 April 2005 Published by the Authority of the House of Lords London [19] Ibid. [20] The Assisted Dying for Terminally Ill Bill 2005. The National Council for Palliative Care. Retrieved from http://www.ncpc.org.uk/ethics/assisted_dying.html [21] Husbands euthanasia plea. January 4, 2007. Ashfield Observer.  © 2007 Johnston Publishing Limited. Document ASHFOB0020070105e31400004. Retrieved from http://global.factiva.com/ha/default.aspx [22] Tremlett, Giles. Euthanasia row: The colourful life and controversial death of Jacques Brels muse: Judge investigates sons claim Madeleine was helped to kill herself. January 19, 2007.   Madrid. The Guardian P. 23.  © Copyright 2007. The Guardian. [23] Ward, Lucy and Carvel, John. Euthanasia: Four out of five want to give doctors right to end life of terminally ill patients in pain. January 4, 2007. The Guardian 9.  © Copyright 2007. [24] Quill TE, 1993. Death and dignity. New York: W.W. Norton. [25] Ibid. [26] Burt RA. 1997, The Supreme Court speaks-not assisted suicide but a constitutional right to palliative care. N Engl J Med.; 337: 1234-6. [27] Reeve, Christopher. (1998). Still Me. New York: Random House Publishing. [28] Hansen, Rick Taylor, Jim. (1987). Rick Hansen: Man in Motion. Vancouver: Douglas McIntyre. [29] Scrivener, Leslie. (1981). Terry Fox: His Story. Toronto: McClelland Stewart. [30] Pfeifer, J.E., Brigham, J.C. Robinson, T. (1996).   Euthanasia on trial: examining public attitudes toward nonphysician-assisted death. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 119-129. [31] Flach, Frederic. (1988) Resilience: Discovering a New Strength at Times of Stress. New York, New York, New York: Fawcett Columbine. [32] O’ Connell Higgins, Gina. (1994). Resilient Adults: Overcoming a Cruel Past. San Francisco Ca: Jossey-Bass Publishers. [33] Kelly, Patricia and Clifford, Patrick. (1997). Coping with chronic pain: assessing narrative approaches. Social Work, 42, 266-277. [34] Davey, G.C.L. (1993). A comparison of three cognitive appraisal strategies: the role of threat devaluation in problem-focused coping. Personality and Individual Differences. 14, 535-546. [35] Lenhart, R.S., and Ashby, J.S. (1996). Cognitive coping strategies and coping modes in relation to chronic pain disability. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation counseling. 27, 15-18. [36] Byrant, Fred B. (1989). A four-factor model of perceived control: avoiding, coping, obtaining, and savoring. Journal of Personality, 57, 773-797. [37] Alter, C.L., Fleishman, S.B., Kornblith, A.B., Holland, J.C., Biano, D., Levenson, R., Vinciguerra, V., Rai, K.R. (1996). Supportive telephone intervention for patients receiving chemotherapy. Psychosomatics, 37, 425-431. [38] Faucett, Julia A. (1994). Depression in painful chronic disorders: the role of pain and conflict about pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 520-526. [39] Massie, M.J., Gagnon, P., Holland, J. (1994). Depression and suicide in patients with cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 9, 325-340. [40] Vachon, Mary, Kristjanson, Linda, Higginson, Irene (1995). Psychosocial issues in palliative care: the patient, the family, and the process and outcome of care. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 10, 142-150. [41] Fife, Betsy L. (1995). The measurement of meaning in illness. Social Science Medicine, 40, 1021-1028. [42] Aronson, Kristan J. (1997). Quality of life among persons with multiple sclerosis and their caregivers. Neurology, 48, 74-80. [43] Regulating Physician-Assisted Death, 1994, retrieved 25 January 2007 from https://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/331/2/119. [44] Kiser, Jerry D. January 1996. Counselors and the Legalization of Physician – Assisted Suicide. Counseling and Values. ISSN: 01607960. v 40. n2 p. 127-31.

The Differences Between American And British Politics Politics Essay

The Differences Between American And British Politics Politics Essay The special relationship the term used by Winston Churchill to describe the uniquely close connection between the United States and the United Kingdom. The relationship between the United States of America and the United Kingdom goes back almost two hundred years before the United States declared independence from Great Britain. In order to understand American and the British political system, firstly the US constitution, the type of political parties and the presidency system will be conceded. Secondly the British constitution, the type of political parties and the prime minister system will be also considered. Lastly the differences between the political scenes on the two sides of the Atlantic will be also looking at. As define by Adrian Leftwich politics are at the hearth of all collective social activities, formal and informal, public and private, all human groups, institutions and societies.  [2]  This means that politics takes place at every level of social interaction. US constitution is the oldest written constitution and holds a central place in United State law and political culture. The Constitution in 1787 forms the foundations of the United States federal government and created a structure.  [3]  This has remained an active governing force through the changes in US society and a very remarkably stable document the American constitution is the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man  [4]  . The Constitution creates the three branches of the national government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress; an executive branch led by the President; and a judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court.  [5]  The Constitution specifies the powers and duties of each branch. The good thing about the US constitution is the underlying acceptance that it could be wrong. If you dont like the laws, its OK to rewrite them, provided you have enough support and the balance of power between the Judicial/Legislative/Executive. US political system is dominated by two political parties, which are the Democratic Party currently positions itself left-of-centre in American politics and supports an American liberalism platform and the Republican Party, which positions itself as a right-of-centre and supports an American conservatism platform.  [6]  The reason beyond these two parties is that the electoral system is first past the post or simple majority which, combined with the large voter size of the constituencies in the House and the Senate, ensures that effectively only two parties can play. The other reason is the influence of money. Money has tremendous influence on the political process and campaign, there more you have their more you can reach out that is why the US can only afford two parties or, to put it another way, candidates of any other party face a formidable financial barrier to entry. US presidency system is often referred to by the media as the White House. The US President is both the head of state and the head of government; He presides over the executive branch of the federal government, and is the commander-in-chief of the United States armed forces. Within the executive branch, the President has broad constitutional powers to manage national affairs and the workings of the federal government and may issue executive orders to affect internal policies. The total electoral vote is 538 so to become a president in the US you need 270 electoral votes  [7]  . The President is elected for a fixed term of four years and may serve a maximum of two terms. The President is not elected directly by the voters but by an Electoral College representing each state on the basis of a combination of the number of members in the Senate two for each state and the number of members in the House of Representatives. Unlike the US the UK has no core constitutional document or unwritten constitution there is no single document that can be classed as Britains constitution. The UK constitution however has traditionally been the doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty, according to which the statutes passed by Parliament are the UKs supreme and final source of law, the Parliament can change the constitution simply by passing new Acts of Parliament.  [8]   UK political parties are an important feature of the British political system. Tree groups dominate party politics in Britain, the conservative, the labour parties and the Liberal Democrat. In addition to these three main parties, there are some much smaller UK parties, most of these parties are transitory but a few have endured sufficient time to merit examination. Some are significant such as the Nationalists in Scotland and Wales, their support has been considerable in particular areas of the United Kingdom.  [9]  Each party have their own institution, it chooses its leader but all involve all the Members of Parliament of the party.  [10]  The leader of the political party with the largest number of members in the House of Commons becomes the Prime Minster. UK does not have a President. Constitutionally the head of state is the monarch who is a hereditary member of the Royal Family. A historic feature of the UK constitution, the Royal Prerogative gives the Crown (the monarch) special powers, including the power to declare war, to make treaties, to pardon criminals, and to dissolve Parliament. Today the role of the monarch in such matters is largely ceremonial, but the Royal Prerogative gives considerable powers to government ministers acting on the Queens behalf.  [11]  So the most important person in the British political system is the Prime Minister. In theory, the Prime Minister simply chooses the ministers who run Government departments and chairs the Cabinet the collection of the most senior of those Ministers. In practice, however, the Prime Minister is a very powerful figure and increasingly has been behaving much like a president in other political systems, especially in the area of foreign policy. The most fundamental difference of UK and US political system is the constitution or the lack of one. The US has a written constitution which is very difficult to change and UK does not have a single document called the constitution but instead its constitutional provisions are scattered over various Acts of Parliament, any of which can be changed by a simple majority in the Parliament. Like Thomas Paine once said Government without a constitution is power without right this means the British government can make the constitution as whatever the wants it to be. There are three major political parties in the British political system: The Labour Party the centre-Left party, The Conservative Party the centre-Right party and the Liberal Democrat the centrist. Where as the US political system is dominated by two political parties: the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. The division between the Labour and Conservative in the UK is the same as Democratic Party and the Republican Party in the US. Each country, one political party is characterised as Centre-Left and the other as Centre-Right. The US President holds the position of Head of State as well as Head of Government. The UK Prime Minister, it would appear, has more influence in domestic, able to dominate his part, legislature and executive branch. The US President, on the other hand, appears to have the position of supremacy in domestic politics, He does not hold the same position of power in domestic affairs as the UK Prime Minister, but his position of strength appears to be in the realm of foreign and international matters. In conclusion by referring to the question whether British and American politics are different, we can see that the term special relationship as nothing to do with the way these two countries is lead. In each four areas we see how both countries have diverse ways of viewing politics. Reynolds, D. (1985-1986) International Affairs. Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944. 62(1), PP. 1-20 Heywood, A. P.(2002) Politics Second edition, London: Palgrave Vile, M.J.C. (1999) Politcs in the USA. London:Routledge W.E.Gladstone in McKay, D. (1997) American Politics and Society. Oxford : Blackwell. D. (1997) American Politics and Society. Oxford : Blackwell. Ceaser. W. J (1990) Political Parties. In: King, A the New American Political System. London: MacMillan Education LTD, PP. 87-135. BBC (2008) The US Electoral College. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/us_elections_2008/3736580.stm/ (Accessed:19november2010) BBC(2003) The UK constitution. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_parliament/2561719.stm ( Accessed: 12 November 2010 ) Moran, C . (1985) Politics and Society in Britain. London: MacMillan Education LTD Moran, C . (1985) Politics and Society in Britain. London: MacMillan Education LTD BBC (2003) The UK constitution. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_parliament/2561719.stm( Accessed: 12 November 2010 )

The Macroeconomic Concept Of The Multiplier Economics Essay

The Macroeconomic Concept Of The Multiplier Economics Essay Currently, Chinas economic is growing rapidly. Living standard of the people has improved and urban rural income has substantially improved. The balance of the household shaving is increasing year by year and china has maintained a high saving rate. The marginal propensity of consume trend to drop, which is extremely unfavorable for the future development of the country economy and it will directly affect the growth rate of GDP. So, all this will become fetters in the process of the development of the economic. In this paper, I will evaluate the extent to which a thorough understanding of the macroeconomic concept of the multiplier would help government to manage their own macro economy. Macroeconomic Macroeconomists study aggregated indicators such as GDP, unemployment rates, and price indices to understand how the whole economy functions. (Burda Wyplose,2005) Macroeconomists develop models that explain the relationship between factors such as national income, output, consumption, unemployment, inflation, savings, investment, international trade and international finance. In contrast, microeconomics is primarily focused on the actions of individual agents, such as firms and consumers, and how their behavior determines prices and quantities in specific markets. (Sloman, 2006) While macroeconomics is a broad field of study, there are two areas of research that are emblematic of the discipline: the attempt to understand the causes and consequences of short-run fluctuations (Griffiths Wall, 2008) in national income (the business cycle), and the attempt to understand the determinants of long-run economic growth (increases in national income). 3. Macroeconomic Multiplier theory Macro-economic multiplier theory is based on marginal propensity to consume by the British economist J.M. Keynes, which explains the relationship of multiples theory between investment and income. The Keynesian multiplier theory is an extension of the field in the international balance of payments, in terms of constant exchange rates and price. It analyzes that income adjustment play a role in the international balance of payments. Its basic content is that investment change brings the impact to the total national income greater than the investment itself, such as a change is often a multiple of the investment changes. (Sloman Wride, 2006). As economic sectors are interrelated, so an investment in a particular sector will not only increase the income of this sector, but also cause a chain reaction in the various sectors in the national economy, thereby increasing investment and income of other sectors, increase of multiplier the national income exponentially. In fact, the multiplier formula simply gives the multiplier as the inverse of the marginal propensity to withdraw (mpw): K=1/mpw. (Sloman, 2006:464). (Show below figure1-3) Figure 1: The multiplier: a shift in injections (Source: Sloman Wride 2006:488) Multiplier  ¼Ã‚  à ¢- ³Y/à ¢- ³J  ¼Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢- ³Y/à ¢- ³W  ¼Ã‚  (c ¼Ã‚ a)/(b ¼Ã‚ c) Figure 2: The multiplier: a shift in withdrawals (Source: Sloman Wride 2006:488) Multiplier  ¼Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢- ³Y/à ¢- ³W  ¼Ã‚  (c ¼Ã‚ a)/(a ¼Ã‚ b) Figure 3: The multiplier: a shift in the expenditure function (Source: Sloman Wride 2006:489) Multiplier  ¼Ã‚  à ¢- ³Y/à ¢- ³J  ¼Ã‚  (c ¼Ã‚ a)/(b ¼Ã‚ a) 4. The current macroeconomic situation in China Presently, China is facing the most severe situation since the Asian financial crisis, which is the most difficult time of the economic development since the new century. In terms of the entitative economy, China is the one of the country in this round of financial crisis which is affected hardly. The industrial sector, energy and raw material sectors and the real estate sector have large impact in this financial crisis.  ¼Ã‹â€ China country review, 2008 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °. From the fourth season in 2008, Chinas economic development problems start to show their impact as a result Industrial production and exports are declined, unemployment increased. From judgments of the countrys economic situation, the Government fully recognized the seriousness of the economy and from the macroeconomics of the multiplier made the measures to following: 4.1. Augment the multiplier to achieve increase in national income In the short term, we can be augmenting the multiplier to achieve increase in national income i.e. raise the marginal propensity to consume and reduce the marginal propensity to save. At present, Chinas savings continue to increase and reached about 15 trillion Yuan, so there is a large potential of consumption. In this situation, the government application of the macroeconomics of the multiplier stimulates consumption. (Wilkinson, 2005:477) .Such as: Reduce the bank deposit interest rates and the collection of interest on income tax; energetically develop tourism, improving holiday economy; improve the minimum subsistence level, increase laid-off workers and retirees personnel subsidies; Appropriately reduce tax on consumption of the general goods, at the same time assess high tax on consumption goods of special. For example, economic crisis havent just affected the issue of workers to return home, but also opportunities of employment. Survey show that from 2002 to 2007, there was an average increase of 5.6% in the migrant workers in the first half, but last year the amount of this growth was only 1.6%, about 4 % poorer than usual.(China Develop Institute 2008) By using multiplier theory, if you make a simple projection, (Wilkinson, 2005:144). i.e. 4 percentages is equivalent to 5.4 million people, these people should be roughly equivalent to the group of migrant workers who should have working out but lost the opportunities in the economic crisis situation. If we add the unemployed people to return home early in this year, this group of people (accounting for 15% of migrant workers) are about 25 million migrant workers who lost their jobs or jobs opportunities due to economic crisis. 4.2. Augment investment to achieve increase in the national income In the long term, the marginal propensity to consume in a steady state, then the multiplier is fixed, so we need to increase investment and improve the national income. (Voyles, 2009) In China, the government makes a lot of policy and adjust fiscal policy and monetary policy, adopted a proactive fiscal policy and appropriately loose monetary policy. There are production, consumption, investment, exports in various field, etc. Now, the state has invested 4 trillion Yuan (China Develop Institute, 2009) in railroad this year and next year, which will stimulate domestic demand. By 4 trillion Yuan package of investment programs, the central government invested 540 billion in this year. But there are 160 billion investments in the original budget this year, so after adjusting for new investments in the State this year was only 380 billion. If the multiplier effect is 1:3, then the central government can bring up more than 1 billion investments. Therefore ¼Ã…’Government expending is an important source by way of investment, which play an important role in the direction of investment and optimization the investment structure. 4.3. Export expansion to achieve increase in the national income China is facing unprecedented opportunities and challenges since joined WTO, we must seized the opportunity and integrate with the international economy, improve the structure of export products and increase the proportion of high value-added exports, improve terms of trade, through external trade bring out the rapid development of the national economy to increase national income. In recent years, the contribution of export in Chinese economics growth rate is around 20% (China Develop Institute, 2009), and now we have to compensate the sharp decline in exports by investment and consumption demand. By using multiplier theory, If the export growth rate is measured by the level of 10%, then the investment growth rate reach to 10% and 2 trillion Yuan of domestic investment and demand-pull may be achieved in the same year. In general, to maintain a GDP growth rate of 8%; if exports rate this year is 6%, it is very difficult to reach 8%, if it rely on 2 trillion domestic investment and demand-pull; if the exports this year have zero-growth, it is absolutely impossible if they rely on 2 trillion domestic investment and demand-pull to achieve 8%. 5. Drawbacks of the Multiplier theory 5.1. Ignores the time lags In the Keynesian multiplier theory, investment, consumption, national income etc all of them are liquidity and change over time. The number of the increase can only be compared with the different periods of the same length. The increase in the periods of different length cannot be explained by using this theory. The Multiplier theory ignore the time lags discuss the flow of change that it is meaningless. (Sloman, 2006:475) For example, in last year, Chinas export was increased to 17%, where textile products have negative growth rate. Relatively, mechanical and electrical products had grown with a high growth rate. But now, it has begun to enter in the difficult term. Last year, Chinas export of electromechanical products maintained a positive growth, as order form have a longer period for machinery and electronic products and as a impact of the time lags shrinking foreign order forms were fewer and start to increase on lay-off of the mechanical and electrical products manufacturing. 5.2. Ignore the difference of the capital flows and capital stocks The multiplier can only exist in stock of the flow, such as money, loans, stock and so on. The multiplier can not exist in the capital flows (McAleese 2004:471), such as investment, consumption, demand, income, etc. and it cannot be extended to the flow of money. For example, recently, China Eastern Airlines exposed that the gas has a loss of 6.8 billion Yuan and CITIC Pacific has lost 200 million Yuan. (China Develop Institute, 2009). The amount lost by companies is huge, due to the misleading by Multiplier theory. According to estimate, so far Chinas financial institutions and enterprises has been loss of approximately 2 trillion Yuan in the overseas investment .Therefore, we can not focus only on the production and GDP growth. 6. Conclusion Keyness multiplier theory is an important component of the system macro-economic theory. But multiplier theory has some drawback, as it ignores the distinction between capital flows and capital stock, ignores the factor of the time lags and led to wrong conclusions. In this situation, where saving are high and consumption is less, application of the Keyness multiplier theory manage the country own macroeconomic. Firstly, through improving the social security system and consummate pension, unemployed, market of the medical insurance and the building of housing accumulation fund. Secondly, Growth accelerated from the current investment in China, demand has increased. Implementation of a positive fiscal policy and increased investment is necessary. The government needs to extend the consumption. Finally, In terms of the export tax rebate rate not high, the government can be used promptly refund in full rebate solution to bring part of the cash flow difficult problem for lag of the export tax rebate. In terms of the export credit, the government makes to encourage measures and to expand exports. Meanwhile, the active use of WTO preferential policies for developing countries to expand exports, optimize the export product mix, improved condition of th e trade.

Welfare Reform :: Social Welfare Retirement Economics Essays

Welfare Reform Welfare is a public assistance program that provides at least a minimum amount of economic security to people whose incomes are insufficient to maintain an adequate standard of living. These programs generally include such benefits as financial aid to individuals, subsidized medical care, and stamps that are used to purchase food. The modern U.S. welfare system dates back to the Great Depression of the 1930’s. During the worst parts of the Depression, about one-fourth of the labor force was without work. More than two-thirds of all households would have been considered poor by today's standards. With a majority of the capable adult population experiencing severe financial misfortune, many Americans turned to the government for answers. In response, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt led a social and economic reform movement attacking the Depression. Part of his newly enacted â€Å"New Deal† program was the Social Security Act, enacted by Congress in 1935. This act and established a number of social welfare programs, each designed to provide support for different segments of the population. Recently Roosevelt’s Social Welfare Program has become a topic of heated debate. Welfare has come a long way since Roosevelt, it was once a system that help those in need until they could get back on their feet, now welfare has turned into a system that feeds money to a group of people that have become to lazy to find work. Talk of replacing the old system with a welfare program that will emphasize putting welfare recipients to work has become very frequent. More and more stated are now beginning to adopt a â€Å"welfare-to-work† program, leaving other states to simply ponder about the idea of â€Å"taking people off the system.† Those in favor of welfare reform argue that a welfare-to-work program will cut the amount of people on welfare causing a surplus of funds. These people base their idea on the overwhelming success of those states who have already adopted such a program. Nationwide, welfare caseloads have declined significantly since the passage of the Per sonal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. In the few months since the bill went into effect the amount of welfare caseloads are down by approximately 2 million. Figures also show that Alabama reduced its welfare enrollment by 48%, and Indiana, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Tennessee reduced theirs by 49%. In Wisconsin welfare was reduced by 58% and Wyoming’s cases dropped an amazing 73% (Source: Dept.

Social Context of The Fire Next Time :: The Fire Next Time

Social Context of The Fire Next Time The Fire Next Time was published in a time of great chaos. A civil rights revolution was sweeping the country. Many of the institutions of American life were being challenged, including religion. Author James Baldwin saw power as a key to African-American success in the civil rights movement. In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to sit in the Negro section of a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. Dr. Martin Luther King transformed a racial protest into a massive resistance movement in the late 1950s. In the early 1960s, the sit-in tactic was launched in Greensboro, North Carolina, when black college students insisted on service at a local lunch counter. "Freedom Riders" were sent to the South in 1961 by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to test and break down segregation laws. In a few years, there would be a sexual revolution, as well as a trend toward peace and love. For the time being, however, hatred and misunderstanding were widespread. Baldwin realized the importance of these events and movements and answered them with The Fire Next Time. As Baldwin became a teenager in Harlem, he began to realize the presence of temptations such as sex and drugs. In order to fight these evils, he fled to the church. Eventually Baldwin realized that the church didn't preach love to everyone, but only to the ones who believed as they did. Despite this bad experience in the church, Baldwin never forgot the positive elements of religion. According to Kenneth Kinnamon, Baldwin realized that Christians had kept blacks down through history, but he still understood the need for religion. "However much he may revile the historical role of Christianity in the enslavement of black people, The Fire Next Time attests that [Baldwin] has never forgotten the compensatory values of his [adolescent] religious experience," he writes (3). After a meeting with Elijah Muhammad, Baldwin realized that Christianity wasn't the only flawed religion. Baldwin saw that both Islam and Christianity needed to compromise their strong beliefs for a unified black movement to have any real power. Baldwin knew the acquisition of power would have to play a key role if blacks were to achieve full civil rights. Baldwin writes, "The only thing white people have that black people need, or should want, is power--and no one holds power forever" (96). He recognizes that whites would be reluctant to relinquish the power they had over blacks.

Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun Essays -- essays papers

A Raisin in the Sun In A Raisin in the Sun, Hansberry portrays obstacles that the Younger family and other African Americans had to face and over come during the post World War 2 era. Obstacles that had to be over come by the Youngers were economical, moral, social, and racist obstacles. Lorraine Hansberry, the author of the play had to face one of these as well growing up. Born in Chicago on the south side in an all black neighborhood, Lorraine Hansberry and her family had to deal with segregation. Moving to a white neighborhood in Chicago, her family had to deal with threats of violence and legal action. Her father defended the case successfully all the way to the Supreme Court.(sparknotes1) Her parents were well known in national black culture and political circles, which probably sparked her to latter become a reporter and editor for the Freedom, a black newspaper in New York from 1950-53. Hansberry relates her life situations through her play by having the Younger family deal with a similar circumstance. In the play Lena Younger or better known as mama, receives a 10,000-dollar check because her husband had past away. She decides to buy a house in Clybourne Park, which is an all white neighborhood. After finding out a black family is moving to Clybourne the so-called Organization Committee sends out a Mr. Lindner to welcome the Youngers. He d...

Challenges Of Minority Groups In Cambodia Education Essay

IntroductionCambodia is a underdeveloped state, which is located in South East Asia, and most of the citizens are Buddhist and Khmer is their female parent lingua. On the one manus, there are diverse states populating together such as: Chinese, Cham, Vietnamese and others including cultural minority groups who are populating in the northeasterly states of Cambodia. ( UNESCO & A ; CARE, 2005 ) . Recently, 34.5 % of instructors in distant countries and 6.4 % in rural countries have non attended higher instruction. Many rural households depend on agribusiness for a life, and instruction costs are the highest disbursal they are confronting. Basically, they are impossible to direct all of their kids to school, particularly misss because of the personal security, and long distance between schools in rural and distant countries ( UNESCO, 2010 ) . This survey besides mentions that kids who do non go to school and who probably bead out are the kids with disablements, misss and kids from rural , distant and boundary line countries ( p. 29 ) . It is truly hard for them to analyze because of their linguistic communications use, finally bilingual instruction is incorporating and accommodating into communities. Teachers from the local communities are trained to run into the educational demands of the kids in the communities, clip tabular array are adapted base on farming seasons, and the schools are run by Community Boards ( UNESCO & A ; CARE, 2005 ) . The intent of this research is concentrating on the undermentioned inquiries: What are the better schemes to better minority groups ‘ instruction to run into MoEYS ‘s aims and vision? Does the bilingual instruction undertaking help minority groups to make higher and better instruction? What can MoEYS, Cambodia Government every bit good as NGOs contribute to develop minority group instruction? Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of Cambodia As the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport ‘s vision in the Education Strategic Plan 2009-2013 ( 2010 ) stated that â€Å" in order to develop a knowledge-based society within Cambodia it has to set up and develop human resources with the highest quality and moralss † ( p. 1 ) . To accomplish this vision, MoEYS has the mission of taking, managing and developing the Education, Youth and Sport sector in Cambodia in response to the socio-economic and cultural development demands of its people and the world of regionalization and globalisation. Meanwhile, a long-run aim of the MoEYS is to accomplish the holistic development of Cambodia ‘s immature people for all sectors and an immediate aim is besides to do certain that all Kampuchean kids and young person have equal chance to derive quality of instruction consistent with the Constitution and the Royal Government ‘s committedness to the UN Child Rights Convention, irrespective of societal position, geographics , ethnicity, faith, linguistic communication, gender and physical signifier ( p. 2 ) . To win in accomplishing the above aims and vision, MoEYS has defined three chief policy precedences and two are mentioned as follows: Ensure just entree to educational services by constructing schools every bit near as possible to abodes, diminishing the figure of uncomplete primary schools, increasing operational budgets to schools, increasing the supply of instructors, supplying houses to instructors and edifice residence halls for pupils in deprived countries, particularly misss, disablements and minority groups ( p. 13 ) . In order to accomplish this policy, there many schemes raised in this Education Strategic Plan 2009-2013 by MoEYS and some are showing here. The first scheme is to guarantee entry of all six twelvemonth olds into primary school including kids from hapless households, kid labourers, kids in deprived countries, kids with disablements, kids affected by HIV/AIDS, and cultural minority groups. The 2nd aim is to increase chances for just entree to higher instruction through increasing the figure of scholarships for prioritized pupils from hapless households, females and pupils from distant countrie s ( p. 15 ) . Similarly, the Education Sector Support Program 2006-2010 by MoEYS ( 2005 ) besides stated that â€Å" the secondary schools scholarships plan aims will be to guarantee increased instruction chances for pupils with high academic virtue from the poorest and deprived households, particularly misss and cultural minorities, through a gradual addition in the figure of targeted scholarships for the hapless † ( p. 27 ) To better the quality and efficiency of educational services by increasing the proviso of school instructional stuffs, libraries and research labs, and go oning to further develop the course of study, increasing acquisition hours and supplying scholarships ( hard currency and nutrient ) to hapless pupils, heightening instruction and direction capacities, beef uping the instructors ‘ codification of behavior, bettering schools ‘ environment, spread outing vocational orientation, increasing review of disposal, finance and instruction quality confidence ( MoEYS, 2010, pp.13-15 ) Economic state of affairs of minority groups Peoples who are populating in the rural and distant countries do non hold easy entree to all the possibilities markets, particularly concerns. Their lives are depending on the season, and when the planting clip come most people are working in the Fieldss. They have to pass most of their clip in the Fieldss in order to gain higher income to back up the households and communities. Their incomes come from selling rice, handcrafts and veggies but it is still really low. They can gain about eighty seven thousand riel or under 20 two dollars per month per family. Before acquiring this money they have to go to markets to sell merchandises to Kampuchean bargainers and purchase something that they on a regular basis need such as: baccy, coffin nails, medical specialties, apparels and some nutrients. Therefore, there is really small clip left for them to believe of instruction or directing their kids to schools particularly misss who are non literate at all. Additionally, merely a few work forces are literate ( UNESCO, 2005 ) Basic information of minority groups instruction Duos to the conditions of life are far off from the business districts, minority groups do non hold easy to schools. Harmonizing to UNCESO ( 2005 ) , â€Å" instruction degrees were higher for males than females ; no female aged 15 and over had completed primary school, and merely 8.2 % have had any instruction at all. The bulk of villagers were 77.8 % nonreader in Khmer, and aged 15 and over spoke small or no Khmer 83.5 % † . ( p.22 ) Races and ethnicity groups in Cambodia Recently, Cambodia is developing all sectors particularly education sectors in different finishs including urban and rural countries, which are located far off from towns. Examples include the rural parts of Ratanakiri and Modulkiri which have higher rates of non-enrollment compared to national norms. Childs who are populating within minority groups are non reached because of their poorness state of affairs and rural location. So far, â€Å" there are 36 cultural minority groups in Cambodia accounting for about 4 per centum of the population † ( World Bank as cited in UNICEF, 2007, p.6 ) Bilingual instruction for minority groups To learn bilingual instruction to minority groups is hard because many are illiterate both in speech production and composing in Khmer. As a study from Chap & A ; Thomas, ( 2003 ) mentioned that â€Å" the spread is widening as ethic minority people fail to derive entree to instruction and development enterprises. The lingual barrier is the first challenge to accessing development and instruction as few people particularly adult females and kids from the cultural minority communities speak the national linguistic communication † . Chap and Thomas ( 2003 ) besides stated that about all-ethnic minority females and over 80 % of the males were illiterate and most kids had ne'er attended school. â€Å" The bilingual instruction pilot undertaking uses a theoretical account of direction that begins in the slang and progresses to Khmer so that pupils learn to read and compose both linguistic communications. Base on the undertaking, five minority linguistic communications now have alp habets utilizing the Khmer book, and the Kampuchean authorities has late approved all five alphabets. † ( p.1 ) . In add-on, the same study provinces that current bilingual attempts are concentrated on five linguistic communications in northeasterly Cambodia, with extra lingual research in several other linguistic communications which have populations scattered throughout the county. The Kampuchean governmental ends are to assist local people to function in all sectors in their place small towns and states including an accent on cultural minorities, with particular schemes to run into their specific demands and challenges, many of which differ from those of the lowland Khmer populations. Furthermore, this study states that the bilingual instruction scheme is of import for run intoing Cambodia ‘s national Education For All ( EFA ) ends and fundamentally we know that the effectual manner is to get down from the known and travel to the unknown because Khmer is a foreign lin guistic communication for the cultural minority groups, therefore they need to get down with their ain linguistic communication in order to entree Khmer. Based on this, bilingual instruction helps highland populations prosecute more to the full in development and nation-building and helps them to do development programs appropriate to their communities in order to guarantee a positive hereafter ( p.3 ) Decision Although the instruction of cultural minority kids is really complicated, the plans that address these issues have been implemented with considerable success as the consequence of partnerships between the authorities, NGOs, local communities, and giver bureaus. Meanwhile, bilingual instruction undertakings have been piloted by CARE, ICC, SCN and others in the northern boundary line states ( Mondulkiri, Preah Vihear, Ratanakiri, and Stung Treng ) utilizing the female parent lingua languages including Kawait, Kreung, Phnorng, Pompuon and Kou. Furthermore, bilingual instruction is expected to be developed based on the pilot plans and particular offers have been provided for instructors who are employed to remote and cultural minority countries. The MoEYS is developing Khmer books for the above five cultural minority groups in order to promote them to larn both mother lingua and the national linguistic communication, Khmer, utilizing both formal instruction and life accomplishments curri cula ( UNESCO, 2010, p.30 ) . In add-on, the authorities continues to set up residence halls for female pupils, construct schools at all degrees, particularly in rural and distant countries and they are besides increasing scholarships for hapless pupils. ( p.34 )